By definition, pewter is any tin-based alloy where tin makes up a minimum of 88% by mass. In practice, any alloy (eutectic or not) in which tin is the main constituent can be called as such, although these alloys are usually more complex and do not form part of the true family of traditional pewter. In this section, we will review the history of the alloy, its physical and chemical characteristics, typical applications, etc. 

Pewter (from English: pewter) is a tin-based alloy. Spelter is a zinc alloy, or simply, pure zinc. They should not be confused.

When one thinks of bronze as a historical symbol, one thinks of the Greco-Roman era. It was the most important metal alloy of its time: armor, statues, coins, etc., were made with it... virtually, it was the most common alloy (more so than steel – at the time a rarity within reach of very few). As you will know by now, traditional bronze is a relatively simple alloy of copper and tin with a typical 90:10 ratio. In pewter, exactly the same thing happens, but in reverse (tin with some copper), with the difference that copper usually does not exceed 2% by mass.

I began this section by associating bronze with the Greco-Roman period to explain why pewter is intrinsically an "English" alloy, in the sense that, although it was used throughout Europe and in the New World, nowhere else on the planet did it acquire more relevance than in the British Isles. In fact, the conquest of present-day England by the Roman Empire had as its fundamental objective the exploitation of the tin mines of Cornwall, since, although copper was relatively abundant (obtained from several Roman colonies, including Cyprus), tin was rather scarce, and without tin, there is no bronze. Once the mines closest to Rome Capital were exhausted, the incursion of Roman militias into present-day England gained great importance upon the discovery of the aforementioned mines. Mines that, incidentally, continue to be exploited even today.

Tin is one of the seven metals known since antiquity (long before the birth of Christ), and it was basically used for two things. One, for the manufacture of bronze (copper + tin), and the second in importance, for the tinning of other metals (mainly lead and iron). Although objects from the Roman era with compositions similar to what we might consider pewter have been discovered, the use of the alloy in question was virtually nil during this period, and it would not gain popularity until the English used it in large quantities as a substitute for silver many centuries later.

Indeed, the first use of pewter exploited its corrosion resistance, ease of manufacture, silvery luster, etc., as a cheaper alternative to silver. Families who could not afford silver cutlery and ornaments found solace in pewter. It did not, obviously, have the prestige of the silvery metal, but it was abundant, cheap, easy to work with, and also recyclable. It was used for everything: jewelry, cutlery, making plates, teapots, ornamental pieces, statuettes, etc. Pure tin is too soft for such applications, but with the addition of small quantities of lead, antimony, copper, or bismuth, the metal's toughness increased enough to be used in a wide range of applications.

It is important to remember that despite everything, pewter has never been a structural metal – that is, even the "strongest" grades of pewter are too flimsy to be used, for example, for manufacturing cannons, hammers, bars, etc. Bear in mind that pewter is a rather delicate metal, appreciated for its aesthetics and manufacturability, not for its strength.

Pewter does not have a standardized or official chemical composition; instead, there is a wide variety of formulations used in its manufacture. This diversity forces, albeit with some reluctance, a generalized perspective when describing its properties.

Despite the variations that may arise between different alloys, pewter is distinguished by its high malleability and moderate ductility, which facilitates its manipulation in forming processes. Its corrosion resistance makes it a durable material, suitable for prolonged applications without significant degradation. Furthermore, its ease of manufacture and soldering make it particularly attractive in industrial and artisanal contexts. Tin, the main component of pewter, is a relatively noble metal, with good chemical stability and an accessible economic cost, although its abundance is often overestimated.

As mentioned, pewter is an alloy based on tin (Sn), to which elements such as copper (Cu), antimony (Sb), lead (Pb), or bismuth (Bi) are added. The proportion of these metals can vary widely: some formulations use only one, others combine two or three, and there are even mixtures that incorporate all simultaneously. This compositional flexibility, without a single recognized formula, allows pewter to be adapted to different technical and aesthetic requirements, although it complicates its precise classification within conventional metallurgical standards.

The first pewters were made with lead for several reasons; among them, its ease of manufacture, the cost of lead (lower than other metals), and its great toughness. It was used for years in cutlery and food-related items (e.g., cups, teapots, goblets, etc.) until it was discovered that lead was very harmful to human health (it is a toxic metal). Even so, lead pewter remains popular in some developing countries, although it is true that it is increasingly used less in applications related to direct human consumption, due to public awareness of the harmful effects of lead. The quantity was not fixed, but it ranged from 10-12% lead by mass, although some pewters reached up to 20% lead by mass. They were the heaviest, and over time they acquired a bluish tint (due to the oxidation of lead). Do not confuse lead pewter with other tin-lead alloys, such as those used for electrical contact solders. 

This is the most expensive common pewter (although still a cheap alloy), and one of the most widely used. Practically all modern pewter grades, including tin-lead combination pewters, contain some copper by mass. Just as in the case of bronze where tin hardens copper, copper hardens tin in percentages as low as 2%. In this specific case, when we talk about "hardening," we are actually referring to an increase in toughness, not the hardness of the metal itself (wear resistance). They are easy to manufacture (copper dissolves in molten tin), work, mold, etc. These pewters are suitable for use in applications such as cutlery, silverware, etc.: they are non-toxic. 

Antimony is added between 1% and 10%, but care must be taken as too much (>12%) can make the alloy brittle. Of all the alloying elements added to tin to form pewter, antimony imparts the greatest toughness, which translates into greater strength. Small amounts of copper are added to prevent the alloy from becoming brittle. These are the most durable, tough, etc. It is non-toxic. 

It's curious because bismuth was used before antimony precisely to increase toughness. Bismuth is a metal similar to lead, but it is non-toxic. It is not very hard (in terms of wear resistance) but very brittle and fragile; nevertheless, it increases toughness, although it is difficult to obtain and somewhat more expensive than copper. It is used sparingly but is of high quality. Bismuth is more corrosion-resistant than tin, and it may slightly increase its oxidation resistance, preserving the alloy's luster for longer. It should be added in discreet quantities (>4%) as it easily makes the alloy brittle. 

An irony of pewter is that some special grades contain some silver, which is soluble in liquid tin. It increases corrosion resistance and toughness. It is used as a typical pewter for applications related to cutlery, vessel manufacturing, etc. It has a better finish than other pewters, and it is more expensive. 

Pewter, whose base is tin (Sn), exhibits notable compatibility with various elements from the p-block of the periodic table, as well as with the copper group metals—such as silver (Ag) and gold (Au)—and the zinc group metals—such as cadmium (Cd) and mercury (Hg). However, it should not be confused with other tin alloys used in specific applications like soldering, among them Rose metal or Wood metal, designed for sealing metallic parts made of bronze or other alloys.

Cadmium, although chemically compatible with tin, significantly improves the toughness and corrosion resistance of pewter. Nevertheless, its high toxicity has led to its almost complete disuse in modern formulations. On the other hand, gallium (Ga), also compatible, tends to reduce the hardness of the alloy, which is counterproductive if the goal is to strengthen a metal like tin, which already possesses a relatively soft structure.

Zinc (Zn), despite its chemical affinity with tin, seems to weaken the alloy's matrix, which is why it is not commonly used in pewter manufacturing. Aluminum (Al), for its part, has limited solubility in tin, restricting its use to very specific and infrequent cases.

Indium (In) is occasionally incorporated with the aim of improving resistance to discoloration rather than corrosion itself. Pewter alloys containing indium are distinguished by their low melting points and their high cost, although they offer exceptional aesthetics: freshly cast, they exhibit a silvery sheen reminiscent of precious metals, making them especially attractive in decorative or high-visual-value applications.

Finally, thallium (Tl), despite its theoretical compatibility, is ruled out due to its extreme reactivity and toxicity, making it an unviable element for any responsible use in pewter alloys.

The so-called Tibetan silver is, in reality, a variant of pewter whose chemical composition lacks a precise and standardized formula. This alloy incorporates small quantities of silver (Ag), generally around 2%, along with variable proportions of antimony (Sb) and copper (Cu), which gives it certain distinctive aesthetic and mechanical properties. Although its name might suggest a noble alloy, the presence of silver is merely symbolic and not sufficient to consider it a precious metal.

This mixture is traditionally employed in the manufacture of the well-known singing bowls used in meditation practices and vibrational therapies. However, despite its visual appeal and ease of casting, Tibetan silver presents inferior acoustic resonance compared to bronze, which is why the latter remains the preferred material in contexts where sound quality is a priority. Bronze, with its more rigid crystalline structure and higher density, offers a richer and more sustained vibration, essential qualities in instruments intended for introspection and energetic harmonization.

The applications of pewter vary considerably depending on its chemical composition. Those alloys containing elements such as lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), or thallium (Tl) must be excluded from any use related to food or direct skin contact, given the potential risk of heavy metal poisoning. In these cases, their use is limited to purely ornamental purposes, where there is no prolonged exposure or transfer of particles to the human organism.

Conversely, pewters formulated with copper (Cu), antimony (Sb), silver (Ag), or bismuth (Bi) are considered safe and are widely used in contexts where both aesthetics and functionality are valued. These alloys allow for simple manipulation, without the emission of noxious fumes, making them an ideal option for beginner jewelers. Their ability to reproduce details with precision and their cold workability—thanks to their high deformability—make pewter a versatile and accessible material.

Among the objects commonly made with pewter are cutlery such as forks and spoons, goblets, commemorative medals, crucifixes, rosaries, various types of rings (signet, bands, wedding), earrings, plates, trays, statuettes, display toys, and models. In this last case, pewter represents a non-toxic alternative to lead, especially in pieces intended for exhibition or modeling.

Historically, the ancient Vikings used pewter to craft amulets, with Thor's hammer (Mjölnir) being one of the most emblematic examples. This tradition underscores the antiquity and symbolic value of the material. Although pewter possesses notable ductility, its malleability does not reach that of silver, which slightly limits its ability to deform without fracture. However, its ease of work, excellent behavior in soldering processes, and its completely recyclable nature consolidate it as a metal of great utility in both craftsmanship and industrial production.

Pewter exhibits notable resistance to common corrosive agents such as air, water, and various organic substances. Under domestic conditions, and provided it is given conscious and respectful maintenance, it can remain in good condition for generations. In the event of dirt accumulation, mild solutions such as soapy water or neutral detergents are sufficient, avoiding the use of aggressive products like household bleach, which can compromise the surface integrity of the metal. Delicate handling and periodic care are essential to preserve its appearance and functionality.

Over time, it is common for pewter to lose some of its original luster. This phenomenon does not imply structural deterioration and can be easily reversed by cleaning with warm soapy water, thus restoring its characteristic shine.

Although pewter theoretically shows some resistance in saline environments, such as seawater, its prolonged exposure to this medium is not recommended, as marine conditions can accelerate degradation processes not immediately visible. Regarding its behavior against more aggressive chemical agents, pewter's resistance to acids—both oxidizing and reducing—is limited, so any contact with these substances should be avoided. Likewise, alkalis and halogens exert a corrosive action on its surface, weakening the alloy and compromising its durability.

In short, although pewter is a robust material against everyday corrosion, its longevity largely depends on the environment in which it is used and the care it receives.

Pewter, whose main component is tin (Sn), has held a prominent place in the magical imagination and folkloric traditions of Indo-European cultures. Tin is part of the group of the seven ancient metals—along with gold (Au), silver (Ag), mercury (Hg), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), and lead (Pb)—and has been historically linked to astrological and mythological aspects. It is associated with the zodiac signs of Pisces and Sagittarius, as well as with the god Zeus, identified in the Roman tradition as Jupiter, which reinforces its connection with expansion, protection, and power.

During the era of the alchemists, tin was highly esteemed, not only for its physical properties but also for its spiritual symbolism. It was believed to possess protective qualities, especially useful in contexts of travel or conflict, which is why it was frequently used in the making of amulets. The Celtic peoples, deeply connected to nature and cosmic cycles, used pewter in talismans designed to safeguard wearers in situations of risk or uncertainty.

With the arrival of the Vikings in the British Isles, the use of pewter expanded even further, integrating into new cultural practices and rituals. Its malleability, ease of casting, and shiny appearance made it an ideal material for the elaboration of symbolic objects, consolidating its presence in both daily life and the spiritual realm. Thus, pewter has not only been a functional metal but also a vehicle of meaning, charged with history and mythical resonances that endure to this day.

The term solder refers to a metallic alloy used in soldering processes, especially in the field of electronics and technical repair. Its most common composition consists of a proportion of 60% tin (Sn) and 40% lead (Pb), although variants exist that adjust this ratio according to the specific needs of the job or current environmental regulations. This combination creates a eutectic mixture with a melting point lower than that of each of its components separately, which facilitates its application without compromising the integrity of the materials to be joined.

The alloy is characterized by sufficient ductility to be drawn into fine wires, which allows for its commercialization in practical and accessible formats in any establishment specializing in electronics or technical DIY. Its corrosion resistance ensures prolonged durability, even under intensive use, and in case of wear, its repair is simple and effective. The high tin content ensures adequate electrical conductivity, maintaining circuit efficiency without interference or significant losses.

In addition to its primary use in joining electronic components, this alloy is occasionally used in sealing glass pieces, taking advantage of its low melting temperature and its adherence capacity. Although this application is less frequent, it demonstrates the versatility of solder as a technical material in contexts requiring precision, stability, and compatibility with different substrates.