SILVER

Name: Silver

Symbol: Ag

Group: 11

Period: 5

Block: d

Category: Transition Metals

Atomic Number: 47

Atomic Mass: 106.42 u

Electrons per Shell: 2, 8, 18, 18, 1

Electronegativity: 1.93

Density: 10.49 g/cc

Melting Point: 962ºC

Boiling Point: 2162ºC

Thermal Conductivity: 430 W (m·K)

Electrical Conductivity: 6.2 × 10^7 S/m

Magnetic Order: Diamagnetic

Ordinary State: Solid

Oxidation States: -2, -1, 1, 2, 3

Mohs Hardness: 2.5

Vickers Hardness: 251 MPa

Brinell Hardness: 25 MPa

Most stable isotopes: Ag-107 (51.839%), Ag-109 (48.161%)

Discoverer: Known since ancient times

Silver is one of those metals whose name changes radically, even within the Latin world. The Roman (Latin) name for the metal, which is the official name – though not used in practice – is Argentum, most likely derived from the proto-Greek "Argyros" or "Argyryos", meaning "grey," "white," or simply "radiant." The name of the metal in Italian is Argento, while in Portuguese it is Prata and in Spanish, Plata. These last two terms refer to the use of the metal and have nothing to do with the original Argentum. Given that one of the fundamental uses of silver was for cutlery, it is more than probable that both terms are linked to the homonymous piece, the dinner plate. It should be noted that silver, unlike steel and certain types of bronze, was worked cold through gentle and spaced hammering carried out by a skilled artisan who, despite working with a metal, was very different from the typical blacksmith.

The profession of silversmith is well-known in Spanish literature and therefore forms part of the cultural heritage of Spain and its former American colonies. The silversmith is distinguished from the blacksmith in that he works with "softer" or "easier" metals than iron; his work spectrum includes not only many commissions for silver itself but also for gold and other weak metals such as tin, lead, and especially malleable copper alloys. The silversmith is distinguished from the blacksmith in that he can work the metal "cold" due to the excellent malleability of the metal, only surpassed by gold and perhaps (a highly debated topic) by platinum.

Silver is considered one of the first three metals to be worked by primitive man. Some sources cite it as the second, while others as the third or even fourth, if lead is included in this list, in addition to silver's "brothers," copper and gold. Since evidence does not establish a defined hierarchy regarding dates, it is considered by various facts that silver succeeded copper and gold in terms of its discovery. It is a noble and precious metal, historically only behind gold in heraldry, symbolism, etc. Before the arrival of Europeans in the Americas, it was held in higher economic esteem in the market for metals and material goods (along with gems, pearls, gold, fine woods, silks, etc.), and its price difference compared to gold was not as brutal as it is today (records of 81:1) because it was considered scarce in the Old Continent. However, it was found in large quantities throughout the South American cone, so much so that it even gave its name to an entire nation in some cases, such as Argentina. This country takes its name from the element because it was found in abundance near the Río de la Plata (which obviously acquires its name for this reason). Curiously, silver is not as abundant in Argentina compared to other South American peripheral countries such as Peru, Chile, Bolivia, Mexico, among others. Today, silver has lost much of its value as an investment, probably for the reason previously mentioned and, secondly, due to the popularity of platinum group metals, which supplant it in this aspect. Its price, however, has remained relatively stable throughout the last century, and it is not uncommon to find it in practically any jewelry store in the world, beyond the jeweler's possibilities. 

Gold, on the other hand, is much more appreciated (increasingly so, in fact), and its value is affected because global reserves are extremely smaller and controlled by smaller groups of elites who use it to maintain global economic balance, nothing more, which is an exception in the case of silver. Despite all that has been said, it plays a pivotal role in the economy of any country and is the only metal in the entire periodic table (besides gold, of course) that has always been valued for its superlative characteristics compared to other metals, including those of the platinum group, a mere "trend" that I intend to debunk in this book. The historical, economic, and cultural weight of silver is only surpassed by that of gold, and alongside gold, it frequently appears in all sorts of fields, from the most archaic mythological, political, literary, pseudo-scientific, and scientific records, etc.

The discovery of silver as a pure element was, just as in the case of copper and gold, an "accidental" event. The metal contrasted with those previously mentioned due to its attractive white color, which gives it its name. Unlike copper, it was difficult to lose its luster and was easy to work: its melting point and malleability are lower than those of the red metal, and, being more noble, it allows for more patient and detailed work than copper. 

Just as in the case of gold, which was considered a divine gift from the gods (in more than one culture), silver was associated with a symbol of high status, belonging to the most important castes. In fact, since the origins of primitive man, he has faced other tribes and social groups to steal or obtain it, because possessing it elevated the individual's social level, in addition to being used as a primary economic medium; that is, the primitive exchange of more or less pure silver pieces for livestock, land, and why not say it (by now you know how sincere I am) to secure forced marriages and thus establish peace treaties, military alliances, and a long chain of power use and management that has never ceased. Such is the importance of silver in this regard that even today, in several countries around the world (not only in peripheral South American countries as is often thought), the term "Plata" is used to refer to money. 

The metal per se is useless to humans from a purely biological or even structural point of view: this means that you can live perfectly without silver – as a living being – since it is not processed in the body nor does it play any essential role, unlike iron, copper, or manganese (other transition metals). However, it is valued for its symbolic, religious, spiritual, and/or cultural value. Literally speaking, silver is more famous simply as a concept itself than any entity of the past, real or mythological, as it has been part of the life of all peoples from their beginnings to the present day, and is a fundamental part of the history of Humanity more for its purely symbolic load than as an element from a chemical or even metallurgical point of view: beyond jewelry, the applications of silver as a metal are scarce, not because it is useless, on the contrary, but because in the previously mentioned field it finds its greatest use, by far. 

A notable characteristic of silver, precisely when talking about jewelry, is that it was always used in a much higher degree of purity than gold or copper alloys. Let me explain: when you buy "gold" in a jewelry store, at most you can buy it in 22 karats (common in so-called gold dental implants). This is approximately 92% real gold and 8% other metal, be it copper, silver, zinc, or a mixture of these or other metals, the case is the same. However, the most famous marking is 18 karats for Europe, or 75% pure gold, and 14 karats in the United States, approximately 50%. The carat decreases according to the quantity of second and/or third metals added to the alloy to lower the cost and in many cases, why not say it, to defraud the customer. Consider that everything I am teaching you through my book is already well known by some of the most experienced jewelers in your own city, and it is not surprising that some might pull a "fast one," as they say in Spain. 

While these types of thefts are rather scarce in a country like this, in other countries around the world they are more than frequent, especially if the jeweler thinks you won't notice. In any case, what I am trying to say is that with silver, there is less chance of theft, as it is usually sold in a high degree of purity (minimum 90% solid silver) to be legitimate from a commercial point of view. It is honorable to say that silver is very resistant to corrosion, but its main companion, copper, has a great affinity for sulfur and its combinations, so false silver alloys will reveal themselves as scams and are, therefore, easier to detect. Another way of saying it is that when you buy silver, it is silver you are buying. In the case of low-karat gold, 9 or 10 karats, consider yourself lucky if the quantity reaches 40% gold by mass; the rest is an alloy of metals (frequently silver and copper, although zinc is also popular), which is curious, because despite the scarcity of gold, the piece will still be called "gold" even if it is the additive and not the main ingredient of the alloy. 

Silver is one of the few metals that appears native in nature, and although it is rare to find highly pure, uncontaminated "white" silver, it is more than possible. It is found both pure and in natural alloys with gold and copper, either with one or with both at the same time (bimetallic native alloys). In the past, it was extracted in its pure form from its own mines or as a byproduct of the exploitation of copper, nickel, gold, and more frequently, lead, because it was more recognizable to the naked eye. 

The most thermodynamically stable minerals of silver are sulfates and sulfides, so it is usually found bonded to sulfur and very rarely to oxygen (silver oxides are very rare to find in pure state). In this respect, it greatly resembles copper; both are chalcophile metals that show a greater affinity for sulfur than for oxygen. Indeed, the overwhelming role of oxygen in base metals like iron, aluminum, zinc, alkali metals, etc., is barely visible in silver, thus denoting its chemical resistance. Another advantageous characteristic of this metal is that even its minerals are easy to reduce and purify through traditional ore roasting in the presence of carbon (the Thermite process can also be used, although it is not necessary and is more expensive). In Europe, silver mines are practically exhausted, with a few exceptions, while in Asia and Africa it is abundant. Nevertheless, as I have mentioned previously, its largest deposits are found in the Americas (particularly Central and South America). 

Silver is the most accessible precious metal and possibly the most abundant in the Earth's crust. I say "possibly" because new mines for platinum group metals are opened every year, and although these are scarcer due to their tendency to "sink" into the Earth's mantle due to their higher density, siderophile nature, and dispersion, logic dictates that in the not-too-distant future they may be tracked more easily and successfully isolated. Furthermore, since some of them (ruthenium, palladium, and rhodium) are atomically lighter, it would be expected that they would be more abundant, at least in the case of ruthenium and palladium, with even atomic numbers. The reason for the apparent abundance of silver is, as I explained in the case of copper, that it is obtained more easily and is much more popular, so the metals of its same block (D) appear "rare" or "scarce" by comparison, and in fact they are, especially rhodium.

Since silver can be easily identified and is more concentrated, it can be exploited more easily. It is not truly clear which country has the largest reserve; Mexico and Peru have been debated throughout the centuries after the arrival of the Spanish. Some mines opened during that period, as incredible as it may seem, are still producing the white metal today. However, in terms of crude metal production, other countries like Australia or China, which are much smaller in relation to size-quantity than Peru or Mexico, are major powers in this aspect. Silver is traded as a precious metal with a purity of 99.99% or higher and is one of the four metals with an ISO code that are part of the London metal exchange; in other words, silver, like gold, has commercial value in itself.

It is a radiant white metal, very soft and weak, heavy (almost as much as lead), easy to work, and resistant to corrosion. It has a peculiarity in that, among the seven metals known since antiquity, silver has the least "compatibility" with other metals, not only transition metals but also some from the P-block. Silver is the group 11 metal that offers the most resistance to possible fusions with other transition metals. This is probably due to its low melting point and/or atomic radius, which is atypical among metals of this family. It is for this and other factors that, despite its position in the periodic table, it more closely resembles a post-transition metal than a typical transition metal. Fusion with iron, cobalt, and nickel is extremely difficult, if not completely impossible; the same applies to refractory metals and most precious metals, except for notable exceptions such as rhodium and palladium, which are slightly soluble in silver. Metals like iridium or platinum also show some resistance to fusion with silver and can only be added in small percentages; it should be noted that none of these alloys have great industrial importance and have only been mentioned in some books as an experiment, none of which were fruitful.

In contrast to what was previously said, silver forms eutectic solutions with cadmium, indium, and tin. Its affinity for mercury is excellent; mercury dissolves it at room temperature (forming the famous dental amalgams) and also for gallium. Alloys with cadmium and indium are important in the nuclear sector due to the high neutron absorption rate of these metals. Lead, thallium, and bismuth have little to no affinity for silver despite their low melting points, and therefore little is known about such alloys. This is paradoxical to some extent if one takes into account that silver is usually found as a byproduct of lead mining in its most important ore, galena.

Physically, silver holds several records as a chemical element. The electrical and thermal conductivity rate of the metal (pure) is the highest among all metals, and only diamond, assuming we take it as an example of pure carbon, conducts heat better elementally. It is important to keep this in mind because although copper is usually more associated with these characteristics, silver surpasses it in this sense (although the difference is not so severe). In fact, the use of silver in some elite appliances accessible to very few at the beginning of the electronic era was not precisely a rarity; it has even been said that power lines were forged with it, something that I cannot confirm, simply because the price of the metal never became low enough to be used in such volumes. Another notable characteristic of silver is that it is the metal with the highest reflectivity of all (more than aluminum); however, it is rarely used if aluminum is available and is only used in applications where its use is indispensable.

Silver is a precious (not "semi-precious" as some sources cite – that is a grave insult to collective scientific intellect) and noble metal, third behind platinum in this aspect and second, only behind gold, in its symbolic weight in heraldry, ease of work, recycling, and popularity in the world of jewelry.

In its natural state, it does not oxidize or form passive surface layers as has been erroneously suggested even on pages of the caliber of Wikipedia. Instead, it does react with the sulfur ion, but not with pure sulfur under favorable conditions (something curious from my point of view), in addition to the presence of humidity and/or temperatures that enable the reaction. Silver reacts easily with combinations of this element; however, it is insoluble in diluted sulfuric acid (low concentration, this acid acts as a reducing agent), but is soluble in the presence of concentrated acid. Oxidizing acids "devour" it violently, specifically nitric (which can be used to form the famous silver nitrate – used in photography) or phosphoric, carbolic, tartaric, permanganate, etc. Reducing acids (e.g., hydrochloric) do not attack it (though they can "stain" it), although hydrofluoric acid can cause it much damage. Curiously, silver is insoluble in aqua regia. This is obviously not because it is superior to gold, but because the combination of hydrochloric acid added to nitric acid disables the latter from dissolving it. In general, silver more closely resembles P-block metals (tin, lead), although it is chemically more noble than these.

Silver darkens over time, especially when we talk about silver as a metal for making jewelry. This is due not only to sulfur and its combinations but also to the skin's own acids, which facilitate the absorption of the S ion by the garments, and on other occasions (more rarely) due to the exposure of the metal to ozone (triatomic oxygen). It is worth clarifying that the reactivity of the piece increases as the purity of the silver decreases. Copper, by far the most frequent companion of silver in these areas, is partly responsible for the contamination of the jewelry, since, unlike silver, it is much more reactive. This problem underlies from the moment the jewelry is created, no less, due to the formation of copper oxide (CuO) during the welding of small parts. In English, this phenomenon is called firescaling. It is aberrant and an attempt is made to conceal it with a superficial silver plating over the areas where its presence is most pronounced.

Another important detail to consider is that, while silver is more difficult to contaminate than copper, it is also more difficult to clean. When copper sulfates or oxidizes, lemon juice (which contains citric acid) is enough to remove the "undesired" layer that has formed on its surface, while in the case of silver we must resort to much more aggressive chemical solutions, since the sulfate it forms (AgS2) is extremely stable and resistant to typical metal cleaning solvents. Later I will detail a simple procedure for cleaning silver (regardless of its purity).

The main consumer of the metal, by a large margin, is jewelry and, to a lesser extent, high-end costume jewelry. The current price of silver compared to past centuries is very low, making it very accessible to all kinds of audiences. Silver is considered an alternative to gold for those who, due to economic reasons and more rarely due to allergies, cannot afford gold. This is something that deeply bothers me, as it diminishes the symbolic value of silver for the benefit of gold. It has even been said that silver is "the gold of the poor" or similar phrases. This is nonsense. Silver is silver in its own right, not a bad version of another metal. Its history and trajectory honor it in many scientific and pseudo-scientific, cultural, and religious fields for millennia, as I have repeatedly stated.

The fact that silver is so popular for use as a jewelry metal is due to its luster and ease of work. It is, along with gold (and perhaps platinum), one of the few metals that can be cold-worked, or in other words, at room temperature. This means that it is not necessary to apply heat to shape it. Due to the excellent malleability and ductility of the metal, highly finished pieces can be created with it. In fact, silver is an "intermediary" in the school of artisans who one day aspire to work with gold in the guild of jewelers and/or silversmiths.

Apart from the jewelry sector, silver is used as a material for manufacturing food-related utensils, all of them very fine and of high prestige. Plates, trays, forks, spoons, tureens, cups, etc. The applications in this sector are extensive in luxury restaurants but are increasingly less seen in a typical modern home, especially for financial reasons. In fact, the famous "German silver" (an alloy of copper, nickel, and zinc) was created to simulate the appearance of silver. Some of these alloys are genuinely good at imitating it, and there have been numerous cases of counterfeiting crimes regarding the metal.

Exploiting its thermoelectric properties, it is used in elite applications. It is a better conductor than copper and, moreover, more resistant to corrosion.

It has also been used for centuries for the manufacture of mirrors.

Until recently, it was used to mint coins. Currently, no country in the world operates with silver coins, as nickel, cupronickel, and nickel-plated steel are used to replace silver.

In the nuclear industry, an alloy of silver with indium and cadmium is used to manufacture control rods. These devices, which, as their name indicates, are metallic cylinders arranged "defensively" throughout a reactor, exploit the ability of these three metals to "absorb" fast neutrons (a product of the reactor's fusion/fission), thus preventing contamination of local workers. Silver, like boron or titanium, is one of those elements that are easy to alter at a nuclear level if bombarded with neutrons.

Silver (Ag), a chemical element with atomic number 47, is a precious metal that, although its market value is significantly lower than that of gold (Au), remains a prominent option for investment. Its importance as a financial asset lies in its relative stability and universal recognition, comparable to that of gold. Unlike platinum group metals—such as rhodium (Rh), ruthenium (Ru), palladium (Pd), iridium (Ir), and osmium (Os)—whose prices have experienced recent increases but are highly volatile, silver offers a more predictable investment profile. These metals, often more costly than silver due to their scarcity (for example, rhodium can exceed 10,000 USD per ounce), exhibit sharp fluctuations that make them risky for non-specialized investors. Platinum (Pt), with lower volatility, could be considered an exception, although it remains less accessible than silver. For those who own silver objects, such as jewelry or coins, and face economic needs, it is crucial to consult a trusted expert before selling, as the market value can vary depending on purity (e.g., sterling silver, 92.5% Ag) and market conditions.

Investing in silver is a viable alternative, especially if gold, with an approximate price of 2,400 USD per ounce compared to 25–30 USD for silver (based on 2025 data), is unattainable. Although it does not promise quick gains, silver acts as a safe haven against inflation or the devaluation of fiat currencies, a historical risk demonstrated in crises such as the Weimar hyperinflation or Zimbabwe. Its intrinsic value, supported by its use in jewelry (50% of demand), electronics (conductors and contacts), and industrial applications (photovoltaics, medicine), ensures its global appreciation, regardless of country or era. However, investing in silver requires caution: its price, less stable than gold's, can fluctuate due to speculation and supply-demand dynamics (annual production of ~27,000 tons versus ~3,000 for gold). Investors should avoid impulsive decisions and seek advice from trusted experts to assess the timing and form of investment, whether in bullion, coins, or exchange-traded funds (ETFs).

Despite its appeal, silver does not match the prestige of gold, even if gold were more abundant (silver has an abundance of 0.075 ppm in the Earth's crust versus 0.004 ppm for gold). Its lower value per unit (approximately 1/80 of gold) limits its potential as a large-scale investment but makes it an accessible option for diversifying portfolios. The risks associated with speculators, who can manipulate prices in less regulated markets, underscore the importance of being adequately informed. Silver, available in physical forms (99.9% pure bullion) or financial derivatives, remains a tangible and reliable asset, ideal for those seeking long-term economic security without the extreme risks of other precious metals.

Silver is, apart from gold and iron, the metal with the most cultural and religious weight throughout the world, regardless of place or time. If gold is associated with the Sun, the active principle, and the masculine sex, silver is associated with the Moon, the passive principle, and the feminine sex (something similar occurs between iron and copper). In astrology, it corresponds to the sign of Cancer, and is considered the second most important metal behind gold from an alchemist's perspective. To obtain it, the "cold method" or "wet way" was used; that is, although it may seem absurd today, the goal of converting "inferior" metals like lead and copper into silver and/or gold depending on the procedure carried out.

Silver is a recurring element in literature and beyond, not only in prose and poetry but also orally: "silver hair" alludes to grey hair, "color of the Moon," "beautiful and white," et cetera, are phrases that are repeated. Silver is used, like marble, to allude to the color white, "albo," which itself represents many positive attributes: virginity, emotional purity, innocence, feminine beauty, divinity (in association with gods), and a long et cetera present in all cultures, from the cold Norwegian fjords to the Horn of Africa.

It is undeniable, therefore, that it is extremely popular in universal folklore. I say "universal" because it is esteemed not only in Europe but also in Africa, India and Asia, Australia, Oceania, and of course in the Americas. This was true yesterday, is true today, and will be true tomorrow.

In pre-Columbian America, it was held in high regard and was used as a base for setting all kinds of gems. Ancient civilizations of the Western periphery or "proto-European" such as the Egyptian, Greek, and Roman also had great esteem for silver. Silver is associated with various rites, all of them typically benign metal, directly related to what is called "white magic" (in no case negative unless used to finance a crime, such as the famous thirty pieces of silver paid to Judas, in which case it plays a purely materialistic role). The fact that silver retains its white color for years with little maintenance is interpreted as a symbol of purity and cleanliness, not only spiritual but also bodily; drinking from silver vessels was considered beneficial for health, and the raw metal was used to combat all kinds of demons in various cultures. From silver bullets to kill vampires, to crucifixes, rings, and other instruments to repel the devil, this metal was believed to be particularly effective against these and other creatures of similar nature. Perhaps the "anti-vampire" use is the most popular application of this metal not only in the film industry, which is barely over a century old, but from the most remote times, in literature, to avoid plagues, diseases, ulcers, the evil eye (in conjunction with jet), etc. The prestige of gold is greater than that of silver, no doubt, but the "magical" potential of the latter is more than evident. It all depends on the beliefs you have or wish to embrace. For me, it is just a metal and little more, but it seemed fair to briefly recall and enumerate the legacy of the element for human beings.